Night Owl 6/Night Owl's Shareware - PDSI-006 - Night Owl Corp (1990).iso/004a/ttips.zip/TTIPS

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#deck title Teaching Tips HyperDeck

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#create table_of_contents with card numbers

#card WELCOME

   Welcome to Teaching Tips\!  This is a hypertext deck constructed at the
Instructional Development Services office of the University of California,
Irvine.
   This deck has been copied with permission from the original entitled "A
Berkeley Compendium of Suggestions for Teaching Excellence."  This compendium
was originally developed by Robert C. Wilson, Director of TIES, University of
California, Berkeley, August 1983.
   We hope you find it useful, and invite you to contribute additional tips by
writing to:

#cl Instructional Development Services
#cl HTC 902--University of California
#cl Irvine, CA   92717

   For a short lesson in navigation press !help!here!.  To move to the Table of
Contents click your left mouse button !TOC!here! or on TofC in the menu line.
#end

#card ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

   The suggestions included in this compendium, with few
exceptions, are the contributions of more than 150 members of the
faculty of the University of California, Berkeley.  These faculty
members, who included over one-third of the past recipients of the
Distinguished Teaching Award, freely opened their classrooms to
evaluation by the project staff and gave generously of their time,
their experience, and their ideas for teaching with excellence. It
is to them that our greatest debt of thanks is owed.
   We would also like to thank the Academic Senate Committee on
Teaching,  whose many members over the past two decades have worked
to promote excellence in teaching through their annual program of
Distinguished Teaching Awards.  The existence of an already-
identified pool of excellent teachers in a wide variety of
disciplines played an important role in the decision to develop the
compendium.  On a campus with more than 1500 faculty members, our
research would have been difficult indeed if it had not been for
the Committee's work in recognizing these talented and  dedicated
teachers.
   For their moral and financial support, special thanks
to Watson M. Laetsch, Vice Chancellor for Undergraduate Affairs,
and to Professor Carol D'Onofrio, past chairperson of the Council
on Educational Development and Faculty Assistant to the Vice
Chancellor.
   We wish to also acknowledge and thank the Systemwide
Administration of the University of California for the grant which
we received in support of the development of the compendium during
the final two years of the Teaching Evaluation and Consultation
project.  Our sincerest gratitude to David Douglas, who with
patience and good humor nurtured the suggestions through the many
UNIX revisions which finally culminated in this compendium.  Our
thanks to Nina Silber who provided skillful assistance in the final
copy-editing stages.  Kate Caldwell and Kay Iwata also contributed
to the production of the final version.  Over the years, many other
TIES staff members provided valuable assistance to the overall
project:  Daniel Finnegan, Linda Moulton, and Dale Harrington--
working seriatim--developed many useful computer programs for the
evaluation component of the project.  Our thanks also to Terry
Richards and Marjorie Borland who provided many support services
during the course of the project.
   Although they were not directly involved in the project, we would
also like to acknowledge our debt to Professor Milton Hildebrand (UCD)
and Professor Evelyn R. Dienst (formerly UCSF and currently at the
California School of Professional Psychology) for their earlier research
on evaluating teaching, conducted with Robert C. Wilson.  The evaluation
form included in this compendium is based on that research.  Our thanks
also to Professor Keith Jacoby (formerly at UCSF) whose initial
model for consulting with faculty about teaching improvement became
the impetus for the overall project.  Information on the
Hildebrand, Wilson, Dienst and the Jacoby studies can be found in
the following publications:

Hildebrand, M., Wilson, R.C., and Dienst, E.R.  Evaluating University
   Teaching.  University of California, Berkeley:  Center for Research and
   Development in Higher Education, 1971.
Jacoby, K.E.  Behavioral prescriptions for faculty based on student
   evaluations of teaching.  American Journal of Pharmaceutical
   Education,    (40) 1976, 8-13.
#end

#section
#card !How to Use!HOW TO USE THE COMPENDIUM!

Presented as a series of suggestions for improving teaching, this
compendium describes more than 200 teaching techniques that faculty
members have found to be effective in their courses at the
University of California, Berkeley. Taken together, these
suggestions cover the major aspects of college and university
teaching from planning and preparing courses to presenting material
and motivating students to giving and getting feedback on learning.

The compendium is designed to be a reference tool to help you
improve certain aspects of your own teaching; it is not a narrative
discourse on teaching meant to be read in a linear fashion.
Therefore, it is recommended that you begin by reading the Table of
Contents and skimming the Index in order to locate those sections
or particular suggestions of greatest interest to you.

After you have become generally familiar with the contents of the
compendium, five steps are recommended for its most effective use
as a reference tool for improving teaching.

First,         fill out the 23 item self evaluation form in
               Appendix B to help identify those aspects of
               teaching which you may wish to improve.

Second,        review data from prior student evaluations of your
               teaching to identify additional areas for
               improvement.

Third,         scan the Table of Contents to locate those sections
               of greatest interest to you and read the suggestions
               within each of those sections, noting whether the
               particular suggestion could be adapted to your
               class.

Fourth,        use the Index to locate additional suggestions of
               interest.  Many of the suggestions affect more than
               one aspect of teaching; these are cross-referenced
               in the Index.  In addition, suggestions relating to
               very specific teaching techniques (e.g., simulations
               or guest lecturers) can be readily found in the
               Index.

Fifth,         once you have found suggestions that you want to try
               in your own teaching, be sure to make a note of them
               in or alongside your lecture notes so that you do
               not forget to employ the suggestions at appropriate
               points in your class.
#end

#card !organization!Organization of the Suggestions!

There are 23 sets of suggestions:  each set corresponds with an
aspect of teaching commonly included on student end-of-course
evaluation forms. For example, the suggestions in Section 5 relate
to the student evaluation item, "explains clearly."  If you want to
improve the clarity of your explanations, the suggestions presented
in this section would be of particular interest.  The 23 sections
are listed in the Table of Contents; corresponding items on the
particular student evaluation questionnaire used in collecting the
suggestions appear in Appendix A and a parallel self-evaluation
form appears in Appendix B.

Each suggestion is presented in the same format, one to a page.  It
begins with "If You Want To" followed by one or more desired
outcomes, the first of which corresponds to the specific section
topic.  A one-sentence description of the suggestion is then
presented, giving the essence of the idea.  Following the shorthand
description are one or more paragraphs which elaborate the
suggestion in terms of its logistics, rationale, and origin.  At
the bottom of the page possible limitations on the use of the
suggestions are noted.

Most of the suggestions in the compendium can be implemented
quickly with little or no changes in teaching style or activities.
Some require careful planning and modification of course structure
or format.  In all cases, the suggestions are meant to be stimuli
for thinking about teaching, not pat answers or panaceas.

We recognize that there is more than one way of teaching well.
Therefore, the ideas presented in the compendium offer a range of
effective strategies for improving teaching from which an
instructor can select those which best suit his or her teaching
style as well as the course level, size, and content. With
judicious selection and adaptation, both novice and experienced
teachers can augment their teaching strengths, correct or
ameliorate their teaching weaknesses, and greatly expand their
repertoire of teaching techniques to respond to new teaching
situations.
#end

#card !source of suggestions!Source of the Suggestions!

The 212 suggestions presented in this compendium were, with few
exceptions, contributed by members of the faculty of the University
of California, Berkeley.  Most of the suggestions were gathered
from recipients of the Distinguished Teaching Award given annually
by the Academic Senate Committee on Teaching.  The process used in
collecting the suggestions was as follows:

(1)  With the permission of the faculty members, student in their
     classes were asked to complete an end-of-course teaching
     evaluation form (similar to that shown in Appendix A);

(2)  These data and student open-ended comments were analyzed and
     five or six of the items which students said were most
     descriptive of a teacher were selected as the basis for an
     interview;

(3)  Faculty members were asked to describe the specific, concrete
     things that they did which may have led their students to say
     that these items were very descriptive of their teaching;

(4)  These suggestions then formed the basis for consulting with
     individual faculty members about ways of improving their
     teaching in a special three-year project;

(5)  From a pool of over 450 suggestions, those with widest
     applicability were selected and edited for inclusion in this
     compendium designed to be a reference tool that could be used
     by a consultant or by a faculty member directly.
#end
#ends

#include table_of_contents

#section
#card !Section One: !DISCUSSING POINTS OF VIEW OTHER THAN YOUR OWN!

!1!Number 1: Select a textbook! which presents one theoretical
             perspective or point of view and build your lectures
             around an opposing set of ideas.

!2!Number 2: Assign readings! to represent a variety of viewpoints.

!3!Number 3: Present each of several competing theories! as if you
             were an adherent of that position.

!4!Number 4: Invite guest speakers! whose viewpoints differ from
             your own.

!5!Number 5: Draw upon the diverse backgrounds! and experiences of
             your students to introduce different points of view.

!6!Number 6: Use student opinion to create a microcosm! of
             society's attitudes on social, political and economic
             issues.
#end

#card !1!Discussing Points of View Other Than Your Own!
                                        Suggestion Number:  1

IF YOU WANT TO:

*  Discuss points of view other than your own

*  Contrast implications of various theories

*  Stimulate students to think critically


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Selecting a textbook which presents one theoretical perspective or
point of view and building your lectures around an opposing set of
ideas.

A professor of economics, for example, assigns a textbook that
represents the point of view of liberal economists, but designs the
lecture presentations around the opposing views of leading
conservatives or radicals.

In addition to assuring a balanced presentation, this approach adds
variety and interest to the course and stimulates students to think
critically.  Because the lecture material complements rather than
repeats the textbook, it has the added benefit of increasing
attendance at lecture.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture/discussion
#end


#card !2!Assigning Multiple Readings!
                                        Suggestion Number:  2


IF YOU WANT TO:

*  Discuss points of view other than your own

*  Contrast implications of various theories


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning multiple readings to represent a variety of viewpoints.

"Because the most controversial issues covered in the course are
ones on which the students have strong opinions but little
information, I try to expose them to diametrically opposite
positions or theories," says one professor of political science.

A professor of business administration adopts the same strategy.
"I use the semi-socratic technique to lead the students through an
analysis and critique of each theorist's position."  The focus is
not on opinions but the reasons behind them.  Sometimes my own view
is apparent, either explicitly or implicitly; other times it is
not."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion:

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture/Discussion
#end


#card !3!Acting as the "Devil's Advocate"!
                                        Suggestion Number:  3

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Contrast implications of several theories


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Presenting each of several competing theories as if you were an
adherent of that position.

A professor of psychology introduces three major approaches or
schools of thought in the field.  "I discuss each one historically
and contrast the basic elements and implications of each," he says.
"I really don't have a point of view in this course.  There is so
little known with impartial certainty; I don't think one is
justified in taking a position at this time.  Therefore, I present
the best case for each theory, then analyze each critically and
comparatively."

Even though they do have a distinct point of view, several other
excellent teachers report that they also present the best case for
each of several completing theories before they reveal their own
preferences.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !4!Using a Guest Speaker With a Different Viewpoint!
                                        Suggestion Number:  4

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Vary the format of your presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Inviting guest speakers whose viewpoints differ from your own.

A professor of education makes a point of doing this in his courses
so that students are exposed to a variety of positions.  "I want
them to understand what the different points of view are, and one
of the best ways I have found to do that is to invite a colleague
or
practitioner, whom I know to be an adherent of each view, to make
a presentation to the class."

See also suggestion 150 for tips on the most effective ways to use
guest speakers in the course.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !5!Having Students Discuss Their Viewpoints!
                                        Suggestion Number:  5

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Invite students to share their knowledge and experiences

     *  Get to know students


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Drawing upon the diverse backgrounds and experiences of your
students to introduce different points of view.

At the beginning of the term, a professor of business
administration asks students to provide written answers to a series
of questions about their backgrounds and reasons for taking the
course.  The questions cover topics such as:  students' work
experience, term papers of research projects, voluntary activities,
personal experiences, and extracurricular interests.  He asks
students to focus particularly on any experiences which might give
them a particular viewpoint on social, political, and economic
issues to be covered in the course.

In conjunction with a seating chart he calls on students whose
prior experiences or interests may be relevant to a given topic
under discussion.  In this way a full range of views are introduced
in the course.  "Often, with little or no effort, I am able to get
students debating between themselves.  In fact, I rarely give my
own point of view until there has been a full discussion of the
different points of view within the class itself."

This technique has additional advantages:  the introduction of
personal experiences and opinions tends to make the class livelier;
and the instructor is given a method for learning at least some of
the students' names by attaching students to their backgrounds,
experiences and personalities.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture/discussion primarily
#end


#card !6!Using Students' Viewpoints as Societal Microcosm!
                                        Suggestion Number:  6

IF YOU WANT TO:

     *  Discuss points of view other than your own

     *  Invite students to share their views on controversial
        topics


YOU MAY WITH TO CONSIDER:

Using student opinions to create a microcosm of society's attitudes
on social, political and economic issues.

At the beginning of a term, a professor of economics gives students
a questionnaire in which they are asked to agree or disagree with
a series of controversial statements on the functioning of the
economy. "Because the introductory course is so large (over 800
students), it is impossible to invite discussion even though many
students enter the course with strong views about such matters as
the causes and cures of inflation," he explains.

"As a substitute for discussion, I use the survey results to
introduce a variety of student viewpoints.  Throughout the semester
I reveal selected results from the survey as these relate to new
concepts or issues covered in reading and lectures.  This technique
gives the students a sense of personal involvement in the subject
matter.  At the same time, the use of student data allows me to
introduce most of the views currently reflected in the society as
a whole."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with opposing views
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  Above 25 to provide a range of opinion
        Mode:  Lecture
#end
#ends

#section
#card !Section Two:  !DISCUSSING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS!

!7!Number  7:  Telephone colleagues! who are conducting state-of-
               the-art research on course topics to get the latest
               information.

!8!Number  8:  Require students to read current journal articles.!

!9!Number  9:  Require reading of newspapers or periodicals.!

!10!Number 10:  Share your professional "junk mail"! with your
               students.

!11!Number 11:  Set aside class time! to let students know about
               community events and resources which will expand
               their understanding of the subject matter.
#end

#card !7!Getting the Latest Research!
                                        Suggestion Number:  7

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Convey a sense of the open-ended nature of research


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Telephoning colleagues who are conducting state-of-the-art research
on key course topics to get the latest information.

For example, before giving her lecture on the heart, a physiology
professor calls researchers at Stanford and UCSF to get the most
recent statistics and findings on heart transplants.  Similarly, a
law professor directly contacts attorneys involved in important
cases pending or under adjudication, making her lectures even more
up-to-date than the Advance Sheets which give the first printed
results of court decisions.

A professor in geography routinely calls his contacts in Washington
to get the latest information on environmental legislation which he
incorporates into his lectures.

This kind of up-to-the-minute reporting on a few major developments
relevant to the course content can help you convey a sense of the
excitement of research to students.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects with recent developments
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !8!Requiring Current Journal Articles!
                                        Suggestion Number:  8

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Help students to understand technical or professional
         literature


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Requiring students to read current journal articles.

"It's important for students to be exposed to state-of-the-art
ideas and materials even in a lower division course,"  says one
political science professor.  "I try to make sure that the reading
list contains at least a few recent publications or journal
articles, even in the introductory course."

"Actually, in some ways it is easier to introduce recent
developments in the field to lower division students than to
graduate students," according to a faculty member in the biological
sciences.  "I do this by over-generalizing.  Usually this involves
translating the abstract of a journal article in terms a layman can
understand and presenting the basic findings or conclusions in a
narrative fashion, using little or no actual data."

"I want students to become excited by the open-ended nature of
science. I want them to understand that almost nothing that they
are learning is the final word, that there is still much that we
don't know.  Even the best textbook cannot convey that; you have to
do it with supplemental materials."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion:

  Discipline:  Subjects with recent developments
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !9!Requiring Current Newspapers and Periodicals!
                                        Suggestion Number:  9

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Connect course content with current events


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Requiring students to read current newspapers or periodicals.

An economist, for example, assigns the Tuesday editorial page of
the Wall Street Journal each week.  She uses these editorials as a
basis for discussions and for exam questions, having students
compare them with textbook presentations on related topics.

A teacher in the biological sciences also believes strongly in
making use of articles in current periodicals.  "I keep my eyes
open for stories on recent developments which have become part of
the `current events' literature," he says.  "For example, in a
discussion of recombinant DNA, I was able to use photos from a
recent issue of Life Magazine, as well as a story the Wall Street
Journal did on the Genetech Corporation."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects for which there are appropriate readings
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !10!Sharing Your "Junk Mail"!
                                        Suggestion Number: 10

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Introduce students to professional activities


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Sharing your professional "junk mail" with your students.

In his graduate courses, a professor of education makes a point of
passing around program announcements for local conferences, program
proceedings, and advertisements for new books and journals in the
field.  "In this way I inform students about professional
activities and recent developments of which they might not
otherwise be aware," he says.

"I also encourage students to attend professional meetings and
conferences and to request papers on topics of interest to them.
It's simply another way to socialize them to the profession."

A faculty member teaching introductory French also shares copies of
newsletters, newspaper clippings, and announcements of French
movies, plays or other cultural events in the Bay Area.  "Students
are often amazed and delighted to learn that there are so many
opportunities to strengthen their language skills and to expand
their understanding and enjoyment of French culture," he explains.



Limitations on Use of Suggestions

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !11!Discussing Community Events!
                                        Suggestion Number: 11

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Expand students' knowledge and appreciation of the subject

      *  Encourage students to take advantage of course-related
         activities


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Setting aside class time to let students know about community
events and resources which will expand their understanding of the
subject matter.

"Every Monday I distribute a calendar announcing course-related
events not only on the campus but in the Bay Area," one social
science faculty member explains.  "The events include dance
troupes, plays, lectures, demonstrations, poetry readings and so
forth.  In this way the content of the course can be expanded far
beyond what I can actually cover in class.  I also encourage
students to use these local resources in their research and writing
assignments.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !Section Three!GIVING REFERENCES!


!12!Number 12:  Distribute a bibliographic list! of recommended
                readings on each major topic covered by the course.

!13!Number 13:  Prepare two lists of references! for each course
                topic to respond to student diversity.
#end

#card !12!Distributing a Bibliography of Recommended Readings!
                                    Suggestion Number:  12

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give references for more interesting and involved points

      *  Encourage students to read further on a topic


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Distributing a bibliography of recommended readings on each major
topic covered by the course.

Some faculty members include these bibliographies (annotated or
not) as part of their course syllabus; others distribute them
weekly as each new topic is introduced.  "Updating and annotating
these bibliographies is made easier if you keep a file on each topic and
insert journal articles, book reviews, or notes throughout the
year," a professor of education points out.  "Typically, I can use
the same bibliography for two or three years," says a professor of
forestry. "In the interim years, I just append new items or write
them out on the board."

A teacher in political science distributes a bibliography and has
students annotate the references as an assignment.  Another has his
TA do the annotation.  "In this way I can be certain that the TA is
familiar with all the recommended readings for the course," he
says.  "Because the TA is typically one of my own graduate
students, this exercise also provides an excellent preparation for
orals."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  Upper division and graduate
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !13!Preparing Two Lists of References!
                                        Suggestion Number:  13

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give references for more interesting and involved points

      *  Encourage students to do additional reading

      *  Accommodate the diversity of students interests and
         background preparation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing two lists of references for each major topic in the
course to respond to student diversity.

A faculty member in the biological sciences gives students two sets
of references on each topic for optional reading.  The first list
recommends readings which might be helpful to students whose
background in prerequisite courses may be weak; the second list
includes readings of interest to students who wish to pursue a
particular topic in greater depth.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !Section Four!EMPHASIZING CONCEPTUAL UNDERSTANDING!

!14!Number 14:  Give students a conceptual framework! on which to
                hang the major ideas and the factual information of
                the course.

!15!Number 15:  Focus your course on the classic issues! and
                concepts in your discipline.

!16!Number 16:  Stress the most enduring values! or truths in your
                discipline.

!17!Number 17:  Repeatedly touch base with the fundamentals! or
                basics.

!18!Number 18:  Model processes! of deductive or inductive
                reasoning.

!19!Number 19:  Pose paradoxes for students to solve.!

!20!Number 20:  Divide your course into parts.!
#end

#card !14!Giving Students A Conceptual Framework!
                                        Suggestion Number:  14

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Giving students a conceptual framework on which to hang the major
ideas and the factual information of the course.

The framework might be a structure, a theme, a conceptual typology,
a controversial issue, or a theory.  It should be made salient to
the students through repeated reference.  As one professor of
physiology points out, "To the uninitiated, the field looks like a
mass of facts; by establishing a conceptual framework, one
minimizes the amount of rote memorization the students will have to
do.

Often the framework can be represented symbolically or graphically.
Another physiologist, for example, begins each lecture by drawing
the same outline of the human brain on the blackboard.  The details
of the brain, in terms of structures and processes, change
according to the specific topics to be  covered in that day's
lecture.

A sociology professor uses a basic typology as the conceptual
framework for his course; this typology is sketched on the
blackboard each day in the form of a matrix into which new
information is written.  He stresses the need to tie the basic
facts together, to make the conceptual linkages for students.

A history professor uses the concept "Attitudes toward Natural
Resources" rather than chronology as the organizing principle.  A
professor of Spanish literature identifies two or three major
concepts (e.g., irony or tragedy) and applies them repeatedly in
lecture, discussion and assignments to reinforce student
understanding.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !15!Stressing Fundamental Concepts and Issues!
                                        Suggestion Number:  15

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Stress fundamental concepts and issues in your discipline


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Focusing your course on the classic issues and concepts in your
discipline.

A history professor explains that she has moved away from
presenting the most esoteric and up-to-date concerns of
professional historians in her undergraduate courses.  "The most
interesting issues and themes for undergraduates, " she explains,
"generally turn out to be those which originally excited historians
about a particular person, event, or epoch, not the
historiographical controversies of present day historians.

"The classic issues are the ones which attracted me to the field,"
she says, "and I find that they are still the most exciting for
students." Following this approach does not mean that you cannot
introduce new research findings where they are relevant, of course.
Nor does this suggest that ideas which have little or no current
validity should be taught.  It does mean that, in limiting your
coverage, you select the major classic themes and concepts wherever
possible.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects for which the classic concepts remain
               relevant
Course Level:  Primarily undergraduate courses
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !16!Stressing Enduring Values of the Discipline!
                                        Suggestion Number:  16

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Stimulate the students to think critically


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Stressing the most enduring values or truths in your discipline.

"I stress the permanent values in literature, the emotional
responses that a particular novel or collection of novels elicits
from us all," says a professor of English.  "I try to get the
students to understand why they respond to a given novel the way
they do."

After the class has discussed how they feel about a novel (the
common emotions it arouses) he tries to lead them to analyze,
understand, and explain why nearly everyone feels that way.  He
poses questions such as:  What must literature be like in order to
get us to respond the way we do?  Why does a particular novel
affect everyone in the same way?  "Behind all my questions is the
search for a way of analyzing and discussing literature that will
explain the most with the fewest assumptions."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Humanities and Social Sciences
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !17!Reinforcing the Basics!
                                        Suggestion Number:  17

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Reinforce student understanding


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Repeatedly touching base with the fundamentals or basics.

One engineering professor believes that too much of science and
engineering is presented to students in a rote, plug-in-the-numbers
way.  "There are thousands of formulas," he points out, "but all of
these are variations on a very limited number of basic ideas or
theories."  These basic ideas are `ideal theories' from which are
derived all the `approximate' or `technical theories' which
engineers use."

"I try to teach students how to judge when we can use an
approximate theory with confidence and when we are forced to go to
a more
rigorous level.  In this way, I keep touching base with the
fundamentals to reinforce students understanding of them."

Another engineering teacher concurs.  "Students typically are
presented with 100 different equations in each course they take.
They are exposed to 1100-1200 equations overall.  Rote memorization
is futile; no one can remember that many equations.  You have to
point out over and over again that these 1200 equations are all
embedded in about 8 basic ones."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Scientific fields
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !18!Modeling Reasoning and Problem-Solving Techniques!
                                        Suggestion Number:  18

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Model various reasoning and problem-solving techniques


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Modeling processes of deductive or inductive reasoning by which an
explanation becomes apparent.

A professor of English says that nearly all of his lectures "follow
a logic and discovery procedure, that is, `Let's make assumption A
and then see if B follows from that.'  My lectures take the form of
unraveling this process, with questions posed to the students to
check the validity of the analysis," he says.

A professor of architecture says that because he has an abiding
interest in questions of cause and effect, his lectures tend to
take the form of "What would happen if..."  Problem-solving
approaches which closely involve the students are characteristic of
many excellent teachers.  An engineering teacher, for example,
begins his lectures by posing a problem which he proceeds to work
out on the blackboard, labeling each step and sharing his reasoning
with the class as he works.  "I try to model a style of analytic
thinking which I hope the students will emulate," he explains.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !19!Posing Paradoxes!
                                        Suggestion Number:  19

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Challenge students to think


YOU MAY WISH TO:

Pose paradoxes for the students to solve.

A chemistry professor emphasizes conceptual understanding by
challenging the students with apparent paradoxes.  "Several times
each semester," he says, "I set up a demonstration to give a visual
result that is at variance with that which is described in the
textbook.  The students are then helped to explain the paradox by
applying a variety of problem solving techniques."

"This kind of demonstration really gets the students thinking," he
says. "Furthermore, many of the students tell me that they learn
much more from seeing than from reading.  It gives them another way
of understanding and helps them gain self-confidence that they do
in fact understand."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Sciences primarily
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !20!Responding to Student Diversity!
                                        Suggestion Number:  20

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field

      *  Respond to student diversity


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

A zoology professor focuses the first part of the course on
fundamentals and the second part on "state-of-the-art" research.
"The first six weeks cover the basic concepts and fundamental
processes all students must learn about the subject," he says.  In
this segment he eliminates many "nice to know" concepts in favor of
going over the basics in a very thorough way.

"Because the students are very heterogeneous (including
undergraduates who have taken only introductory biology as well as
graduate students in zoology), I spend the first six weeks making
certain that everyone is brought up to approximately the same level
of understanding of the fundamentals.  Then in the last weeks of
the course, I introduce the latest research experiments in the
field.  In effect, the first half of the course is made up of
`little white lies,' that is, the simplified constructs of the
field.  In the latter weeks, the emphasis is on how research is
actually done and how little we really know."

A professor of physics uses a similar strategy throughout his
lower-division course.  He divides course topics into three groups:
those which are "Basic" (i.e., should be mastered by every
student); those which are "Recommended" (i.e., should be mastered
by every student seeking a good competence in the subject); and
those which are "Optional" (i.e., should be mastered only by those
students with specialized interests).



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  Courses enrolling students with diverse preparation
Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !Section Five!EXPLAINING CLEARLY!


!21!Number 21:  Focus your lectures on a few main points.!

!22!Number 22:  Carefully define all concepts and terms.!

!23!Number 23:  Rephrase explanations of major points! several
                times.

!24!Number 24:  Use lots of concrete or memorable examples.!

!25!Number 25:  Demonstrate! a concept or ideas rather than simply
                describe or discuss it.

!26!Number 26:  Empathize! with students' difficulties in learning
                the material for the first time.

!27!Number 27:  Acknowledge the difficulty! and importance of
                concepts students are likely to find hard to
                understand.
#end

#card !21!Focusing Your Lectures!

                                        Suggestion Number:  21

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Focusing your lecture on a few main points and omitting unnecessary
exceptions, complexities or details.

"The key to explaining clearly,' says one economics professor, "is
to limit the amount of material covered by a single lecture.  The
critical error made by many faculty members is trying to include
too much by a factor of six."

"I generally focus on three main points and repeat these in various
ways throughout my lecture.  Beginning undergraduates do not need
to be exposed to the intricacies and complexities of a discipline;
indeed, introducing them to these will only confuse them.
Introductory course are best taught by focusing on the
fundamentals, using generalizations, and avoiding too many
exceptions to the rule."

A history professor concurs.  "I tell undergraduates, `Here is what
I think you can say is true, despite all the past and current
debates of historians.' I don't go into those debates because they
are complex and undergraduates are not sophisticated enough about
historiography to appreciate them."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  Undergraduate
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !22!Carefully Defining Concepts and Terms!
                                        Suggestion Number:  22

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Respond to student diversity


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Carefully defining all concepts and terms.

A faculty member in the biological sciences points out that you
cannot assume that the students know or remember concepts and terms
from previous courses.  "If I use a word for the first time, I
write it on the board and define it.  I do this even if it is a
concept or term that students have presumably learned in
introductory biology and chemistry courses."

Another faculty member underscores the importance of giving
students a clear definition of terms.  "If the term is not defined
or is poorly defined in their textbook, I point that out and then
give them the clearest definition I have been able to find."  He
frequently looks at three or four introductory texts to find the
clearest definition of a term, especially if it is either not
defined or not defined well in the textbook used in the course.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !23!Rephrasing!
                                        Suggestion Number:  23

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize the main point


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Rephrasing explanations of major points several times.

"Repetition leads to learning," one science professor says.  "I
repeat major points several times from a different direction or in
different words."

"No single explanation will be clear to all students," points out
a professor of business administration.  "By using different
language or different examples, I maximize the chances that every
student will eventually understand."

A political science professor also consciously alters the words he
uses. "I have a tendency to say things twice," he says:  "first,
formally and then colloquially."  An engineering professor reports
that he develops the same point in two or three different modes,
e.g., mathematically, verbally, and graphically.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !24!Using Concrete Examples!
                                        Suggestion Number:  24

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using lots of concrete or memorable examples.

Most excellent teachers agree that the choice of examples is very
important, favoring those that are anecdotal, personal or humorous
because they find that students tend to remember these best.  "I
use concrete examples wherever possible," says an anatomy
professor. "For instance, I describe a particular body organ by
comparing its size or texture to an object familiar to students,
like a walnut."

An economics professor also places importance on using concrete
examples of interest to students.  "I use specific examples
whenever I can.  In talking about inflation and price controls I'll
use the price of Prince tennis rackets or Sony Walkmans rather than
apples or a general product."

A forestry professor uses the same strategy.  "In talking about
acre-feet of water, first I define it formally and then I give
several examples which will help them appreciate the amount of
water represented, such as `equivalent to 77,000,000 ice cubes.'
Students tend to remember examples like that," he explains.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !25!Demonstrating Concepts!
                                        Suggestion Number:  25

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Demonstrating a concept or idea rather than simply describing or
discussing it.

"Whenever possible, try to avoid talking about something in its
absence," one teacher says.  "For example, don't tell students how
to present a logical argument; present a logical argument and help
them to analyze it.  Don't describe how to solve a problem;
demonstrate how to solve it on the blackboard and label and
describe the steps and your reasons for them as you go."

Demonstrations are superior to discussions because they make use of
additional senses.  Drawing examples from everyday experiences,
even if they cannot be demonstrated in class, will help students to
visualize or re-experience them and reinforce their learning.

Use visual imagery whenever possible.  Even if a live demonstration
or the use of visual aids is not practical, the use of metaphors
and analogies that give students a mental image to draw upon can
help reinforce their understanding and recall.  For example, a
physics professor helps students "get ready" for a discussion of
velocity by asking them, "Have you ever seen a quarterback throw a
football into the wind?  Have you ever thrown a ball into the wind
yourself?  What happens?"

Teachers can often make use of slides, maps, tape recordings, live
or filmed dramatizations, charts, diagrams, demonstrations, and
actual cultural artifacts to illustrate the subject matter.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !26!Empathizing With Students' Difficulties! in Learning
Material
                                         Suggestion Number:  26

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Help students follow explanations or difficult concepts


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Empathizing with the students' difficulties in learning the
material for the first time.

A faculty member in the sciences says that he noticed that he had
taught the course better the first time than he did the second
time. "When I asked myself why, I realized that in preparing the
course for the first time, I really had to work hard to master
certain parts of the material in order to explain it to the
students.  The next time, however, these concepts no longer seemed
difficult to me. Unfortunately I forgot that they would still be
difficult for the students.  Now I color-code all of my lecture
notes, keying the parts that students are likely to find difficult
and making a special effort to make those points very clear."

A physics professor also tries to put himself in the students'
shoes. "After I have finished writing up a set of lecture notes,"
he says, "I review them carefully, asking myself: `What might the
students find hard to follow in that line of reasoning?'  `What
examples might make that more clear?'  This has now become the most
important part of my lecture preparation."

Several faculty members report making notes to themselves of
explanations that worked well and those that didn't.  They also
keep records of the kinds of errors students most commonly make in
assignments and exams as a reminder of what students find most
difficult to understand.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !27!Acknowledging the Difficulty and Importance of Concepts!
                                       Suggestion Number:  27

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Explain clearly

      *  Emphasize conceptual understanding

      *  Identify what you think is important


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Acknowledging the difficulty and importance of concepts students
are likely to find hard to understand.

One engineering teacher says, "I consciously cue the students to
the most difficult ideas by saying such things as, `Almost everyone
has difficulty with this one, so listen closely.'  "Because the
level of students' attention varies throughout the hour, it is
important to get everyone listening carefully before introducing a
new concept or explaining a difficult point.

A forestry professor agrees.  "I make a special effort to slow down
and get everyone's attention when I come to a concept I know
students will find difficult."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !Section Six!BEING WELL PREPARED!


!28!Number 28:  Keep a set of cumulative notes! for each course
                topic.

!29!Number 29:  Keep a journal.!

!30!Number 30:  Completely rework your lecture notes! each time you
                teach the course.

!31!Number 31:  Review! the relevant sections of several textbooks
                for each lecture topic.

!32!Number 32:  Use an abbreviated set of lecture notes.!

!33!Number 33:  Reread! the texts assigned to students.

!34!Number 34:  Prepare handouts! of the lecture outline and any
                detailed formulas, derivations or illustrations.

!35!Number 35:  Prepare a detailed course syllabus.!

!36!Number 36:  Teach the same course in a subsequent semester.!

!37!Number 37:  Audit the same or related courses! taught by
                colleagues.
#end

#card !28!Reviewing!
                                        Suggestion Number:  28

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well prepared

      *  Develop a system for updating lectures


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping a set of cumulative notes for each course topic.

Most teachers keep a chronological set of lecture notes from
the first to the most recent time they have taught a course.
Many teachers keep separate notes for each lecture topic.
"To these I add research articles, newspaper clippings,
cartoons, ideas for assignments or exam questions and notes
to myself for improving the lecture or discussion," reports
a professor of English.

By keeping separate topic files and inserting new materials
and notes of new ideas throughout the year, it becomes much
easier to prepare a new set of lecture notes with improved
or more up-to-date examples, assignments, or explanations
the next time you teach.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !29!Keeping a Journal!
                                        Suggestion Number: 29

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well prepared

      *  Profit from your own mistakes



YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping a journal.

One history professor has found it very effective to keep a
brief journal or diary for each course.  "After each
lecture, I jot down a few notes about how the class went:
explanations and examples that worked well and those that
didn't, students' difficulties with the text, techniques for
generating discussions, and so forth.  If something went
very badly, I correct it at the next meeting.  For the most
part, however, I keep the journal to help me improve the
course next time."

Although a journal of this type could be beneficial to any
teacher, its value is greatest for new instructors or for
faculty members teaching a new course or a course they teach
only every few years.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end


#card !30!Reworking Your Lecture Notes!
                                        Suggestion Number:  30

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Maintain your enthusiasm for the subject matter

      *  Have your course reflect your own professional growth


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Completely reworking your lecture notes each time you teach
the course.

"It's important to completely redo my notes each time I
teach the course," says an economics professor.  It helps me
rethink the material so that the ideas seem fresh and new to
me as well as to the students.  This increases my enthusiasm
for the subject matter and I think this is communicated to
the students."

"My lectures change somewhat every time I teach the course,"
says a professor of psychology.  "In this way, over a period
of six to eight years, they change quite radically.  This is
partly because the field is changing, but it is also because
my own ideas continue to develop."

Although the myth of the professor who teaches with yellowed
and musty notes is almost unheard of in a major university,
the importance of re-creating lecture notes each time a
course is taught -- even if back-to-back within the same
year -- was stressed by nearly all excellent teachers as a
way of keeping themselves fresh and interested as well as
interesting to the students.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture, primarily
#end

#card !31!Reviewing Relevant Sections of Textbooks!
                                        Suggestion Number:  31

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Introduce recent developments in the field

      *  Have your lectures complement the textbook


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Reviewing the relevant sections of several textbooks for
each lecture topic.

A faculty member teaching a lower division course in the
biological sciences says that in preparing each lecture he
starts by comparing three or four introductory texts.  He
then looks at one or two specialized books on the given
concept or biological process.

"There is no such thing as the perfect textbook; each has
its strengths and weaknesses.  By comparing several
approaches, I am able to distill the best definitions,
explanations and examples and am less likely to overlook
important aspects of the topic.  It also helps me to
complement the textbook rather than repeat it in lecture.  I
also include simplified accounts of recent developments in
the field taken from my own professional reading whenever it
is appropriate."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !32!Using Abbreviated Notes!

                                        Suggestion Number: 32

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Have a more interesting style of presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using an abbreviated set of lecture notes.

Many excellent teachers describe a two-stage process in the
preparation of their lecture notes.  A history professor,
for example, says "First, I write out a detailed set of
lecture notes over the weekend or the night before class.
Then, on the morning before class, I take about an hour and
a half to reduce these notes to a brief outline on index
cards."

"Students like structure," he explains.  "But they do not
like terribly formal lectures delivered verbatim.  Once I
have worked out fully what I want to say, I communicate it
more forcefully and more informally from a small number of
index cards.




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture, primarily
#end

#card !33!Rereading the Texts!
                                        Suggestion Number:  33

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Identify what you think is most important

      *  Complement the textbook


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Rereading the texts assigned to students.

Teachers in several disciplines report that a major part of
their preparation is rereading the texts assigned to
students.  "I reread the text assignment over the weekend
not only to ensure that it is fresh in my mind," says one
history professor, "but also so I can acknowledge the parts
I found dull, unclear, or especially important."

An English professor says, "No matter how well I think I
know the literary texts assigned, I reread them very
carefully so that they are vivid in my mind."

An anatomy professor reports that he rereads the text just
after he finishes his lecture notes.  "I always check my
lecture notes against the text a final time," he says,"to be
sure that I am complementing rather than repeating the text
and to note any disagreements I have with its author."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !34!Preparing Handouts of Lecture Outlines!
                                        Suggestion Number:  34

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing handouts of the lecture outline and any detailed
formulae, derivations, or illustrations to be presented in
the class.

"My handouts include the essential points of my lecture,
including definitions, notations, important formula, and
derivations, " says one professor of business
administration.  "Students could not cut class and rely
solely on the notes, however, because they are not self-
explanatory.  Essentially they are designed to help the
students follow the main structure of the lecture and to
keep them from getting bogged down in copying details."

Several excellent teacher report that they make judicious
use of handouts covering the most important, detailed, or
complex topics covered in their lectures.  Not everyone
favors handouts, however.  "Analytical material can't be
learned by watching and reading alone," says one engineering
professor.  "It must be learned by doing, by writing it
out."  He puts important material on the blackboard,
discussing the steps and labeling them as he goes to aid
students in their note taking.




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture primarily
#end

#card !35!Preparing A Detailed Course Syllabus!
                                        Suggestion Number:  35

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Preparing a detailed course syllabus.

"My syllabus usually runs about 15 pages," says a professor
of education.  "It is organized by class session and each
section consists of the major topic, four to eight important
study questions or issues the students are expected to
understand or be prepared to discuss, and the required
reading and recommended supplemental readings.  The syllabus
also describes the assignments, grading procedures, and the
competencies students are expected to have (i.e., the things
they are expected to be able to do) at the end of the
course."

In addition to his own detailed syllabus, a professor of
forestry also prepares what he calls a "quasi-syllabus" for
students.  "The students' syllabus (which is sold to them at
cost) includes a course outline and a complete set of the
graphs, charts, and biological drawings which I show on
slides during lectures," he explains.  "In this way,
students can study and review the supplementary materials
outside of class in conjunction with the text and notes
taken during lecture."




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !36!Teaching the Course Again!
                                        Suggestion Number:  36

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Profit from your own mistakes


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Teaching the same course in a subsequent semester.

One chemistry professor frequently teaches the same course
"back to back" in two consecutive terms.  "This way I can
maximize learning from mistakes I have made," he explains.

"I make notes to myself about what went well in the course
and what didn't as it goes along," he says.  "For example, I
might make a note saying, `Don't forget to emphasize this
point before that point.'  Executing these suggestions to
myself the very next semester reinforces my own learning."




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Courses offered every term.
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !37!Auditing Related Courses!
                                        Suggestion Number:  37

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Be well-prepared

      *  Get ideas for teaching a course for the first time


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Auditing the same or related courses taught by colleagues.

One faculty member of computer science reports that he makes
it a habit to audit other faculty members' courses.
"Particularly if I know I am scheduled to teach a course for
the first time," he explains, "I make a point of taking the
course from the best instructor available.  I attend all of
the class sessions and usually do most of the homework.  I
find this is a much easier way to do some advanced
preparation than sitting down and reading several textbooks.
It forces me to do some preparation each week."

"Taking the course from a colleague not only provides a good
review of the content, but I often pick up two or three good
teaching techniques as well.  Later, I do additional
research and design the course my own way, but I have the
great advantage of building on a model created by a
colleague."





Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  Courses taught frequently by several professors
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION SEVEN!GIVING LECTURES THAT ARE EASY TO OUTLINE!

!38!Number 38:  Let students know what you're going to discuss! and
                why at the beginning of the lecture.

!39!Number 39:  Write an outline! for your lecture on the
                blackboard before you begin.

!40!Number 40:  Give students a list of questions! which cover
                topics to be addressed in your lecture.

!41!Number 41:  Outline! your lecture on the blackboard as it
                develops.

!42!Number 42:  Structure your lecture! as you would a journal
                article.

!43!Number 43:  Use "closed lists"! wherever possible in your
                lectures.

!44!Number 44:  Organize your lectures into 10-minute segments.!

!45!Number 45:  Schedule a break if your class exceeds one hour.!

!46!Number 46:  Pay attention to your boardwork.!
#end

#card !38!Letting Students Know Topics to Be Covered! From the
Beginning
                                        Suggestion Number:  38

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class section

      *  Summarize major points


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning each lecture by letting the students know what you
are going to talk about and why.

An engineering professor refers to this as his "battle plan."  "At
the beginning of the hour, I give them a battle plan so they know
where the discussion is going and can follow it more easily," he
says.  "For example, I tell them that I'm going to discuss such-
and-such a topic for the first twenty minutes, show them how to use
it in the next twenty minutes, and then take questions in the last
ten minutes.  By laying out exactly what your are going to do, you
eliminate a lot of student confusion.  You don't want students
spending an hour wondering, `why is he talking about that?' or
`What does that have to do with anything?' instead of concentrating
on what you have to say."

Many excellent teachers cite the old adage, "Tell 'em what
you're going to tell 'em; tell 'em; and then tell 'em what
you've told 'em."  Although it may appear to be an over
simplification in the case of lectures on complex subjects,
the general principle is a good one which can be adapted to
major topics within a lecture as well as to the overall
lecture itself.




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture
#end

#card !39!Writing an Outline Before You Begin!
                                        Suggestion Number:  39

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Writing an outline for your lecture on the blackboard before
you begin.

One professor of physiology says that he picked this up from
a colleague when they were team-teaching several years ago.
"I put the outline of my lecture in the corner of the
blackboard when I first come into class," he says.  "That way
the students can tell at a glance when I've shifted topics and
where we are in the day's discussion.  I also make frequent
reference to the outline to alert students to transitions and
the relationships between topics."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !40!Giving Students A List of Questions!
                                        Suggestion Number:  40

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class section

      *  Give students a conceptual framework for taking notes


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Giving students a list of questions which cover topics to be
addressed in your lecture.

One history professor does this routinely.  "By outlining my
lecture as a series of questions," she explains, "I hope to
stimulate the students to think actively during the
presentation.  The questions are designed to give them a
conceptual framework and guide so they can identify where we
are and where we are going in the overall discussion."

"I realize that it is difficult for students to listen
attentively for a full hour," she says.  "Providing them with
an outline of the lecture in question format allows them to
pick up the thread of the discussion more quickly as their
attention fades in and out."




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture primarily
#end

#card !41!Outlining Your Lecture on the Blackboard As It Develops!

Suggestion Number:  41

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Reinforce student learning

      *  Keep yourself from going through the material too rapidly


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Outlining your lecture on the blackboard as it develops.

One professor in the biological sciences says that she always
outlines her lectures on the board as she goes along, using
colored chalk to differentiate major and subordinate heads or
points and to diagram relationships.  On a separate section of the
blackboard she also writes down any technical terms or
names of scientists that the students might not know how to
spell.

"The outline serves to reinforce visually what I am saying,"
she explains.  "Furthermore, it makes clear to everyone where
we have been and where we are going.  An added bonus is that
writing the outline on the board as I go along slows down my
lecture pace: it serves as an automatic `brake' and keeps me
from racing through the material."

"I prefer to use the board as I go along," an engineering
professor says.  "I think this emphasizes the importance of
major ideas better because they are revealed in the context of the
discussion."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture
#end

#card !42!Structuring Your Lectures Like A Journal Article!
                                        Suggestion Number:  42

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  State objectives for each class session

      *  Summarize major points


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Structuring your lectures as you would a journal article.

"Each lecture should have a clearly defined beginning, middle, and
end," a professor of history notes.  A faculty member in computer
science concurs, saying that he prepares his lectures so that they
have the oral equivalents of an introduction, headings,
subheadings, summary, and conclusion.

"Orally highlighting the structure of a lecture serves the same
communication functions as using paragraphs and different type
faces in a journal article," he says.  "It tells the audience what
the topic is, why it is important, what its chief components and
their relationships are, and what conclusions we can draw."

"I firmly believe in sharing the structure and reasoning of my
lectures with the students," he explains.  "I begin each lecture by
stating my objectives.  For example, `Today we are going to discuss
X and its effects of Y and Z.'  I make frequent transitional
phrases, and I leave time to summarize the major points at the end
of the hour."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture
#end

#card !43!Using "Closed Lists"!
                                        Suggestion Number: 43

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Summarize major points


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using "closed lists" whenever possible in your lectures.

A political science teacher says he makes frequent use of
closed lists.  "I make a habit of saying things like, `There
are three main implications of X, number one is...' or
`Remember in the last lecture, we were discussing the six
principal steps that an administrator goes through when...;
these are Number one..., etc.'"

"Closed lists are marvelous," he says.  "They are fictional
constructs, of course, and this needs to be pointed out to the
organizer for the students.  Nevertheless, they provide a good
advanced organizer for the students. Closed lists help them
both to listen for major points and to take notes.  They also
provide a very natural bridge or transition mechanism for letting
students know when your are changing from one topic to another.
Finally, I find that closed lists provide a good structure for
summarizing, because they help differentiate between the main
points and the detailed examples or digressions."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !44!Organizing Your Lecture Into Ten-Minute Segments!
                                        Suggestion Number:  44

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Organize your lectures to leave time for a summary

      *  Improve the pace and timing of your lectures


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Organizing your lectures into ten-minute segments.

A faculty member who reports doing this says that he learned
the trick from an article in Science written by Nobel
Laureate, Sir Lawrence Bragg.

In the original article, Bragg says, "Some try to get the
timing of a lecture right by, as they say, `running over it
beforehand' and seeing how long it takes...  I prefer to
divide it into some half dozen portions, and allocate about ten
minutes to each, marking this timing in the margin of my rough
notes..."

"The advantage of dividing the time up in this way is that the pace
can be adjusted during the lecture when it is clear that
it is going to be too long or (rarely) too short.  If time is
running long, the part to shorten is the middle where it will
be little noticed.  The beginning or the end must not be
hurried..."  ("The Art of Talking about Science," Science,
Vol. 154, December 1966.)



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture
#end

#card !45!Scheduling A Break!
                                        Suggestion Number: 45

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation

      *  Show interest and concern for students


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Scheduling a break if your class exceeds one hour.

After an hour, it is difficult for students to concentrate and take
notes steadily; their efficiency drops.  Many teachers
provide a break after 50 minutes or so to give students a
chance to regain their concentration.

A physics teacher always takes a short break in his 1 1/2-hour
class.  "I have students stretch at their seat to wake them up and
get their blood circulating."  A faculty member in the
biological sciences has students take a "t'ai chi" break,
leading them through exercises.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !46!Paying Attention to Your Board Work!
                                        Suggestion Number: 46

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Give lectures that are easy to outline


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Paying attention to your board work.

One of the best summaries of "blackboard etiquette" we have
found was written by Uri Treisman for the Graduate Assembly's
Handbook for Teaching Assistants (1983).  A few of his
suggestions may help you to avoid what one faculty member has
termed "an autistic chalkboard ballet."  The following is a
summary of Treisman's tips, augmented by those reported by
faculty members.

First, be sure to determine the visibility of the board from
several vantage points in the room.  Second, if you are
teaching in a room with three movable boards, use the middle
board first.  When you are finished push that board up and use the
front board next.  In this way, the information you have
presented can be viewed for a longer period of time.  Third,
if you have a soft voice or are teaching in a large room,
don't lecture while writing with your back to the class unless you
are wearing a microphone.  Also turn to face the class
when making important points so that you can pick up visual
cues as to students comprehension.

Fourth, label the basic components of what you put on the
board, using words like "Theorem," "Proof", "Answer."  This
practice will emphasize the structural aspects of problem
solving and reinforce student learning.  Fifth, don't simplify
expressions by using an eraser while students are trying to
take notes.  Put a single line through the expression you wish to
simplify and write the new expression above it.  If you
omit a computation, indicate that you have done so by writing
"computation omitted."  Sixth, prepare handouts of any
detailed formulae, derivations, or illustrations to be
presented in class.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Primarily mathematics, statistics and sciences
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION EIGHT!SUMMARIZING MAJOR POINTS!


!47!Number 47:  Begin and end your lectures! or discussions with a
                summary statement.

!48!Number 48:  Use the blackboard for effective summarization.!

!49!Number 49:  Begin with a brief summary! of the last meeting and
               call for student questions.
#end
#card !47!Beginning and Ending With A Summary Statement!
                                         Suggestion Number:  47

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Give lectures that are easy to outline

      *   Emphasize conceptual understanding


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning and ending your lectures or discussions with a
summary statement.

A history professor finds it helpful to place his watch in
full view on the desk or lectern.  "I watch the clock
carefully to be sure that there is time to summarize the day's
discussion.  Then, at the beginning of the next class session, I
sum up the previous lecture once more before moving on to a
new topic."

"Students crave both continuity and a sense of closure," he
explains.  "They do not like unfinished presentations.  At the same
time, because none of us likes repetition, I try hard to
use different words and examples in each summary.  The best
way I have found to avoid redundancy is to note on an index
card the exact words I have used at the end of a lecture, so
that I am reminded to vary them in the brief recapitulation I
give at the beginning of the next class meeting."

A professor of business administration also uses this
technique.  "Because each concept in this course builds upon
what has gone before, it is important for students to see how
each new topic relates to what they have already learned as
well as to what they will be learning in the coming weeks.  I
find the most effective way of doing this is to begin with a
brief summary of what came before, followed by a brief preview of
what will come next."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !48!Using the Blackboard for Effective Summaries!
                                        Suggestion Number:  48

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Give lectures that are easy to outline


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using the blackboards for effective summarization.

Several excellent teachers stressed the need to plan their
blackboard work carefully so that the most important concepts
are still visible at the end of the hour and can be used in
making a summary.

"I consciously attempt to write clearly and legibly and to be
sure that my boardwork is organized and visible to everyone,"
one engineering professor says.  "At the end of the class, I
use this boardwork to go back over important theorems or
equations, underlining and boxing in colored chalk important
concepts and steps."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !49!Beginning Class With a Summary of the Last Meeting!
                                         Suggestion Number:  49

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *   Summarize major points

      *   Identify what you consider most important

      *   Check students' understanding of a major concepts and
          ideas

      *   Provide a good transition between major topics


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning each class period with a brief summary of the main
points covered in the last meeting and then calling for
students' questions.

The advantage of summarizing and asking questions at the
beginning of a class period is that, "the students are fresher and
after a brief recapitulation, they are more likely to
realize and acknowledge if they have any problems," as one
teacher puts it.  A variation on this technique is to
summarize and call for questions whenever there is a major
transition from one topic to another within the same lecture.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION NINE!IDENTIFYING WHAT YOU CONSIDER IMPORTANT!

!50!Number 50:  Calling attention to the most important ideas!
                in each lecture.

!51!Number 51:  Explaining why a particular point is important.!

!52!Number 52:  Indicating the relative importance of ideas!
                presented in the lecture.

!53!Number 53:  Using dramatic pauses! and repetition to draw
                students' attention to the main ideas.
#end

#card !50!Calling Attention to the Most Important Ideas!
                                        Suggestion Number:  50

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is most important


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explicitly calling attention to the most important ideas in
each lecture.

"I began to emphasize the main points about ten years ago,"
says one political science professor, "when I discovered that
you can't rely on undergraduates to intuitively know what the
most important points are.  You have to tell them."

Faculty members in several disciplines stress the need to call
students' attention to the most important ideas being
presented.  Some teachers announce the importance of an idea
before presenting it, saying such things as, "This is really
important, so you have to be alert."  Other teachers emphasize the
most important ideas when summarizing, saying, "The most
important thing to remember here is..." or "This is so
important that everyone of you should have it engraved on a
gold plaque and hung over your bed\!"  as one professor of
computer science puts it.  "There is no point in students
having to guess what is important if I can tell them," he
says.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture primarily
#end

#card !51!Explaining Why a Point Is Important!
                                        Suggestion Number:  51

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is most important

      *  Motivate students to learn


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explaining or demonstrating to students why a particular point is
important.

Several teachers believe that the best way to cue students to
the importance of an idea is to show them the role that idea
plays in an overall understanding of the course material or in
applications beyond the course.

"I think it is crucial for students to know why a concept is
important," says one physiology professor.  "Just saying that
it is important is not enough.  You need to put the concept in some
perspective, to show why it is important.  Explaining why an idea
is important not only gets the students' attention, it gives them
a framework on which to hang the idea."

An engineering professor concurs.  "I follow the introduction
of a major concept with lots of specific examples, including
anecdotes which show application of the concept in current
professional practice," he explains.  "You must show students
why it is important to know a particular concept if you expect them
to master it."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !52!Indicating Relative Importance of Ideas!
                                        Suggestion Number:  52

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you consider is most important


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Indicating the relative importance of ideas presented in your
lecture.

A professor of political science says, "I highlight major
points by saying, `This is more important than that.'  For
example, if I am giving a list of six contributing factors to
some phenomenon or event, I identify which in my view are most
important.  I don't want students to go away thinking that
everything I say is of equal weight or importance."

A professor of engineering also thinks it is important to
differentiate between the most and least important ideas
presented in lecture.  Therefore, he tells the students, "You
don't have to memorize everything, but you might want to
remember this..." or "This, on the other hand, is something
you will use so many times that it's worth paying special
attention to."  Used sparingly, he believes that these
prefatory remarks help focus student learning on the most
essential parts of the course.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Lecture
#end

#card !53!Using Dramatic Pauses and Repetition!
                                        Suggestion Number:  53

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Identify what you think is important

      *  Vary the speed and tone of your voice

      *  Have a more interesting style of presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using dramatic pauses and repetition to draw students'
attention to the main ideas.

Several teachers stress the need for repetition (using
different language or examples) to communicate the most
important points in their lectures.

Dramatic pauses are another way to highlight important ideas.  A
history professor says that she used to tell students, "The
main point is..." but in a matter-of-fact manner, almost as an
aside.  "I discovered that many students did not get the
message," she explains.  "Now I indicate a main point by
pausing to get students' full attention and then saying
emphatically, 'This is the really important consideration\!'
Then I pause again to be sure they are prepared to write it
down.  If not, I restate the importance of what is to follow.

A sociology professor also uses dramatic pauses and a sense of
timing to stress the most important points in his lectures.
"I structure each lecture to build up to the crucial point of
the topic," he says.  "Then I announce it in a sweeping
manner, timed to occur at the end of the class period."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION TEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--INTEGRATING DISCUSSION INTO LECTURES!

!54!Number 54:  Divide your lecture into blocks of time!, one of which
            is a discussion segment.

!55!Number 55:  Make one of the lecture periods a discussion section.!

!56!Number 56:  Move around the room to promote discussion.!
#end

#card !54!Dividing Your Lectures Into Blocks of Time!
                                         Suggestion Number:  54

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Integrate discussion into lecture

      *  Have an interesting style of presentation


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Dividing the class period into blocks of time, one of which is
a discussion segment.

"I found it boring when I was a student simply to listen to a
professor talk for an hour and a half," says a faculty member
of ethnic studies.  "So I try to vary the class activities by
dividing the class period into three segments."

For the first 20 minutes of class time, he builds up to a
discussion question by presenting evidence, facts or issues.
The next 30-40 minutes is devoted to student discussion even
though the class has several hundred students.  The instructor
asks students for possible explanations or interpretations of
the facts or issues presented in the first part of lecture.
For example, in his discussion of the Chinese Exclusion Act he will
ask why it was passed at that particular time rather than in an
earlier or later period.  Students offer possible
reasons which he records on the board, and elaborates, probes
or interprets.

The last 20-30 minutes of class is spent analyzing the
discussion and bringing the topic to a conclusion.  Finally he ends
the period by posing a question which students are to
think about before the next class meeting.

Incorporating discussion into large lectures classes takes
careful preparation:  the questions posed to students need to
be identified in advance and their responses anticipated in
order to ensure a productive discussion.  Nevertheless, this
approach is very effective for engaging students' interest and
encouraging analytical thinking.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !55!Making One of the Lecture Periods a Discussion Section!
                                         Suggestion Number:  55

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Form discussion groups in large lecture classes


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Turning one of the lecture periods into a discussion section.

An engineering professor teaches a lecture course which
enrolls about 40 students.  Because of its size, there is no
Teaching Assistant for the class and no formally scheduled
discussion section.

"I believe that discussion is quite important, but the current size
of 40+ students prohibits useful exchange in the lecture
setting," he says.  As a result, he decided to restructure one of
the lecture meetings into two discussion sections.

On Mondays and Wednesdays he lectures to the class.  On
Fridays, students meet in two different sections (15-25
students in each group) to discuss the material.  The faculty
member conducts both discussion sections.

Although it might be difficult to schedule a convenient time
for one of the sections (the other can meet during regular
lecture hours), the benefits seem worth the effort to this
instructor.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  Classes too large for discussion & too small for Tas
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !56!Moving Around the Room to Promote Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  56

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Decrease comments directed solely to you as the teacher


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Moving around the room in a way which will promote discussion.

A professor of business administration finds that the way in
which he moves around the room alters the kinds of interaction he
is able to generate among the students.  "When a student
asks a question, it is natural for an instructor to move
toward that student," he points out.  "However, this tends to
exclude the other students and focuses the interaction between the
teacher and each participating student in a series of
dialogues.

"In order to draw the other students into the discussion and
to get them to address their comments to one another as well
as to me, I find that it helps if I move away from the student who
is speaking rather than towards him or her.  This forces
the student to project so that everyone is drawn into the
conversation.  It also makes it more likely that the student
will address fellow students."

A teacher of social welfare adds that she has found it useful
to use nonverbal gestures to get students to address their
comments to one another.  "A wave of the hand or a nod of the
head is generally sufficient to indicate that a student should be
addressing a question or comment to another student and not to me,"
she says.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION ELEVEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--RESPONDING TO STUDENT QUESTIONS!

!57!Number 57:  Redirect student questions.!

!58!Number 58:  Paraphrase student questions.!

!59!Number 59:  Postpone student questions.!

!60!Number 60:  Admit when you don't know the answer.!

!61!Number 61:  Understand why students repeat the same questions.!
#end

#card !57!Redirecting Student Questions!
                                         Suggestion Number:  57

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Invite students to share their knowledge

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Respond to student questions


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Redirecting student questions.

Whenever you have reason to believe that there are students in the
class who know the answer to a student's question, it is
useful to redirect the question to one of those students or to the
class as a whole.  A professor in the social sciences, for example,
says that in the discussion section he tries hard not to answer
students' questions directly unless he doubts that
anyone in the class would be in a position to give the correct
response.

"Even in lecture classes, I often use this technique," he
says.  "It tends to involve the other students more with the
question and it illustrates how fellow students can be a
resource for learning."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !58!Paraphrasing Student Questions!
                                         Suggestion Number:  58

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

      *  Avoid private dialogues in the classroom


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Paraphrasing student questions.

"In a large class it is important either to repeat students'
questions or to integrate the question into your responses,"
a teacher in the biological sciences notes.  "Otherwise, many
of the students will not have heard the question and you will
find yourself in a private dialogue in which the class does
not participate.

Another teacher notes the importance of paraphrasing students'
questions especially if it is not clear what the question is.  This
professor says to the students, "If I understand your
question, you want to know under what conditions X does not
function in that way.  Is that correct?"

Often by paraphrasing a very narrow question, a teacher is
able to elevate the question to a higher order and incorporate both
the specific and the general case in his or her response.  This
tends to increase the interest level of the students.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None, but especially useful in large classes
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !59!Postponing Student Questions!
                                         Suggestion Number:  59

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions

      *  Handle lengthy, tangential or irrelevant questions


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Postponing students' questions which go beyond the current
focus of discussion.

Sometimes students ask questions which go beyond the topic of
discussion.  These are questions which anticipate an upcoming
topic, take a topic to a deeper level than expected, or raise
a new issue.  The question may be important to the student,
but irrelevant for the current discussion.  The teacher must
decide either to put the question aside for after class or to
deal with it at the moment.

Most faculty members agree that questions which require a
lengthy response or divert discussion from its major focus
should be postponed.

As one economics professor explains, "When those circumstances
arise, I usually say, "If I indulge this question, it will
lead to this, which will lead to that, which will take us off
the main track.  If you are interested, please see me after
class.'"  Likewise, a history professor notes, "If a student
asks a question about a topic I am going to address more
formally in a later lecture, I ask the student to make note of the
question and bring it up again."

If you are able to postpone students' questions with humor, it
makes it less likely that they will feel "stupid," or "put-
off" by your response.  Some faculty members, for example,
respond by saying something like, "Andrew, you anticipate me
by two full weeks.  If you can wait that long it is my hope
that we will all share your thirst for knowledge on this
point."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !60!Admitting When You Don't Know the Answer!
                                         Suggestion Number:  60

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Admitting when you don't know the answer to a student's
question.

"Students don't expect you to know everything," notes a
professor of architecture.  "They admire your candor when you
tell them you don't know, and they appreciate your interest
when you find out the answer and tell them later."

"It's far worse to fake it than to say `I don't know that, but it's
a good question and I'll try to find out the answer for
you,'" says a professor of art history.  Similarly, if you are not
sure of the answer it is better to say, "I'm not sure.
Let me think about it," than to just give the wrong answer and then
try to correct it later.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !61!Understanding Why Students Repeat the Same Questions!
                                         Suggestion Number:  61

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Respond to student questions


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Understanding why students repeat the same questions.

"I used to be impatient with a student who asked a question
which had been asked and answered earlier," says a professor
of computer science.  "Only after several years did I come to
understand that such students are not necessarily stupid or
inattentive.  I learned instead that a student can only ask a
question after the material has registered with him, after it
begins to make sense."

"Although one student may have asked the question the day
before, other students may not have `heard' (i.e.  understood)
either the question or the answer.  Only later, when the
material `clicks', does that same question become meaningful
to for them.  Indeed it appears as a `new' question for them
and they are now receptive to the answer.

"I try to keep this in mind and patiently answer all relevant
questions.  I try to use different language or different
examples, hoping that this will make it clear without boring
those who grasped the idea a day or two earlier."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION TWELVE!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--HELPING STUDENTS PREPARE FOR DISCUSSIONS!

!62!Number 62:  Explain the purpose of discussion.!

!63!Number 63:  Create an appropriate physical setting for discussion.!

!64!Number 64:  Identify discussion questions/issues in advance.!

!65!Number 65:  Have students read different books and journal articles !
            as a basis for discussion.

!66!Number 66:  Use an assignment as a basis for discussion.!

!67!Number 67:  Use an opinion questionnaire as a basis for discussion.!

!68!Number 68:  Assign students specific leadership responsibilities.!

!69!Number 69:  Begin with common experiences.!

!70!Number 70:  Divide the class into smaller groups.!

!71!Number 71:  Prompt discussion through the use of key phrases! on
            index cards.

!72!Number 72:  Try brainstorming techniques.!
#end

#card !62!Explaining the Purpose of Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  62

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Explaining the purpose of discussion.

To get students involved in class discussion, it is helpful to
explain the value of their participation and what they can
expect to get out of the experience.

A professor of business administration stresses the importance of
explaining the benefits of discussion with students.
"Students don't know how to participate in a seminar so I make a
point of telling them what skills they will acquire:  how to speak
and discuss their ideas, how to listen and respond to
others' ideas."

In seminars, especially, many faculty members find that it is
worthwhile taking some time to teach the students how to
listen to others, how to paraphrase, how to involve other
members of the group.  "Students have to understand that in a
seminar they share the responsibility for making the
discussion a worthwhile experience for us all," says one
social science teacher.  "This is a new idea for most of
them."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  Small discussion classes or seminars
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !63!Creating An Appropriate Setting for Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  63

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Create a climate for discussion

      *  Decrease student to teacher exchanges


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Creating an appropriate physical setting for the discussion.

It is difficult for students to talk to people they cannot
see.  In a typical classroom, with fixed seats facing forward,
students tend to direct their comments to the front of the
room - to the teacher - rather than to other students.  This
arrangement encourages one-to-one dialogues rather than group
discussion.  If, on other hand, students can see each other,
they are more likely to interact with one another as well as
with the teacher.

A circle or U-shaped arrangement of chairs is the most useful
for discussion.  Instructors also find that if they sit with
the students rather than stand or sit on a table, it helps
promote true class discussion in place of student-faculty
exchanges.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  Classes of fewer than 50 students
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !64!Identifying Discussion Questions/Issues in Advance!
                                         Suggestion Number:  64

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

      *  Provide a stimulus for discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Identifying discussion questions in advance.

Students are more inclined to participate when they know the
focus or intent of the discussion.  A preview of the
discussion topics can help students organize their thinking
and prepare to express their views.  Several faculty members
develop discussion questions in advance and distribute them to
their students.

"In my education course," one professor explains, "I give
students a series of four to eight discussion questions on
each week's reading assignment.  These are spelled out in the
course syllabus which is handed out during the first week of
class.  Each student is responsible for all the questions in
any given week.  These questions serve both as study aids and
stimuli for discussion."

A professor of engineering and another in English do not hand
out lists of questions until one or two weeks before the topic is
to be discussed.  This makes it possible for them to design
questions which incorporate issues related in earlier
discussions.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !65!Using Books and Journal Articles As A Basis for Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  65

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Motivate students to do their best work

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Discuss recent developments in the field


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Allowing students to select different books and journal
articles as a basis for discussion.

A forestry professor who employs this technique gives students a
bibliography of 20-30 research articles for each of six
major topics in his course.  "I tell the students to read
until they feel that they are familiar enough with the basic
concepts, research methods and findings, to take a quiz and
participate in a discussion of the topic," he says.  By
requiring some level of mastery of each topic and yet giving
the students the opportunity to select among readings, he
finds that many students read extensively in the areas of
greatest interest to them.

"The quizzes are 10 minutes long and consist of three short
answer or short essay questions.  The questions are at a
conceptual level high enough to allow students to respond
regardless of which articles they chose to read," he explains.

A class discussion of the topic follows the quiz.  "Because
the students have not read identical sets of articles, these
discussions allow them to share complementary knowledge.  I
try to get them to generate their own question, to take
positions, to engage in debate," he says.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subject matter which lends itself to this approach
Course Level:  Primarily upper division or graduate
 Course Size:  Small enough for discussion
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !66!Using Student Writing Assignments As A Basis for Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  66

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Have students apply concepts to demonstrate understanding

      *  Help students prepare for discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using students' writing assignments as the basis for
discussion.

An engineering professor identifies several key questions or
issues which are given to students a week or two before they
are to be discussed.  Students prepare written responses of no more
than one typewritten double-spaced page.  As a result of
writing their answers, students come to class well prepared to
discuss the material.  Their written responses are turned in
at the beginning of the period and are subsequently graded, as is
their participation in the discussion of the topic.

A history professor uses a similar strategy.  In the first
week of class he gives a few short writing assignments, each
of which can be completed in one or two short paragraphs.
"It's hard to provoke discussion at the beginning of the term
by simply tossing out a broad query to the class," he says.
"Assigning a specific topic to write about helps students
prepare for the discussion.  Later, when the students are more
comfortable with each other and with me, this kind of formal
preparation is less necessary."

A professor of business administration uses the same approach
throughout the term.  Each week a "reaction" paper is due
which requires students to write one to three pages on a
specific topic, typically responding to a controversial issue.  The
papers are graded and used as the basis for class
discussion.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !67!Using Opinion Questionnaires As A Basis for Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  67

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Discuss points of view other than your own

      *  Get the discussion started


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Having students complete a brief opinion questionnaire and
using the results as a basis for discussion.

A faculty member of business administration has found this
approach to be particularly effective.  "The first seminar
session generally begins with a questionnaire asking for
opinions on a variety of issues that will be covered in the
course.  Each week we begin by analyzing the questionnaire
results on the relevant topic and talking about the views of
political economy revealed by the students' answers," he
explains.

This device is very effective in starting discussion and
helping students (and the professor) get to know one another's
views.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which involve different points of view
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !68!Assigning Students Specific Leadership Responsibilities!
                                         Suggestion Number:  68

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for discussion

      *  Give students experience as group leaders


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning students specific leadership responsibilities.

"I find this procedure very effective in getting students to
take responsibility for class discussions," notes an
architecture professor.  Students select topics for which they will
serve as discussion leaders.  The number of leaders per
topic depends on the size of the class (usually from one to
three students per topic).  Each student leads a discussion
two or three times per semester."

"The leader's task is to prepare a set of three to six
discussion questions regarding the reading material.  These
discussion questions are handed out to the rest of the class
the week before the topic is covered.  The leaders assume
responsibility for generating and facilitating the discussion
in a format upon which they have previously agreed."

A version of this strategy specific to literature courses is
used by another professor.  Each week a team of students is
responsible for conducting the seminar.  They do not hand out
questions in advance, but they are expected to come prepared
to lead the discussion. One member of the team prepares an
autobiographical sketch of the author being studied; the other
student introduces the novel and the key issues to be
discussed.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subject matter which can be presented by students
Course Level:  Mainly upper division or graduate
 Course Size:  Fewer than 20
        Mode:  Lecture/discussion
#end

#card !69!Beginning With Questions Based On Common Experiences!
                                         Suggestion Number:  69

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Get the discussion started


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Beginning the discussion with questions based on common
experiences.

Students often feel more comfortable talking about an
experience they have in common:  a field trip, a slide show,
a demonstration, a film, a book, an exhibit, etc.  A shared
experience can stimulate good discussion because, as they
exchange their observations, students frequently discover that they
have different perceptions and reactions to the same
event.  The discussion can then focus on how and why
perceptions vary.

An English and a history teacher both apply this technique to
their courses. "I like to begin my discussions with a question all
students can answer," explains the history professor,
"usually dealing with how students felt about the reading."
The English professor begins discussion by asking students'
reactions to the novel.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !70!Using Small Groups!
                                         Suggestion Number:  70

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Prepare students for effective discussion

      *  Give students experience in conducting and evaluating
         discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Dividing the class into smaller groups.

An education professor divides his class into groups of six to
eight students.  Each group is assigned a specific question or
topic to discuss, selected from a list of questions prepared
in advance.  But, because students do not know beforehand
which questions their group will be assigned, they must be
prepared to discuss all of them.

The professor assigns one student in each group to be the
discussion leader, another to be the group's summarizer, and
a third to be the group's evaluator.  Each group conducts its
discussion in what it feels is the most effective manner.
During discussion, the faculty member moves back and forth
among the groups, noting any issues he may want to bring up or
clarify at the end of the class.

After the groups have discussed their respective topics, they
are called back together and each group summarizer presents
the results of that group's discussion, highlighting key terms or
other information felt to be important.  Each group's
evaluator then provides some observations on how well the
group functioned and makes suggestions as to how it might have
functioned more effectively.  During the course of the term,
each student serves at least once as a group discussion
leader, a summarizer, and an evaluator."




Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Seminar/discussion
#end

#card !71!Using Key Phrases to Prompt Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  71

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Get the discussion started

      *  Develop students' impromptu speaking


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Prompting discussion through the use of key phrases on index
cards.

Before class, an education professor prepares a set of 3 x 5
index cards, each containing an important phrase or issue
relating to the topic or readings for that week.  He makes
three to six cards depending on the amount of time he wishes
to spend on the topic.  A student draws a card out of a hat
and has three minutes to respond to the prompt.  The class
then discusses and elaborates on the student's presentation.
At the beginning of the course, students are told that they
will be called on to speak two or three times throughout the
semester.

"I find this technique very useful in breaking the ice for
discussion," he explains.  "Furthermore, this activity gives
students a chance to polish their impromptu speaking skills."

A variation which this same teacher employs is to give the
same question to groups of two or three students and have them
discuss the issue among themselves for five to ten minutes.
Small groups are then combined into larger groups of four to
nine students and discussion continues for another 10 minutes.
Finally, a student is selected from each group to make a brief
presentation to the assembled class on the conclusions reached by
his or her group.

"By beginning the discussion with only two or three people,"
this teacher explains, " students are more likely to `open up' and
express their views.  In order for two people to have a
discussion, they both have to talk."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !72!Using Brainstorming!
                                         Suggestion Number:  72

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Help students prepare for an analytical or critical
         discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Using brainstorming as a technique.

Brainstorming is a method which can be particularly effective
in getting students to consider all of the possible causes,
consequences, solutions, reasons or contributing factor to
some phenomenon.  The rules are very simple.  Students are
encourage to contribute ideas rapidly and each idea is written down
on the blackboard.  During the formation of the list no
idea is to be questioned or criticized by any member of the
class.  Spontaneity and inventiveness are to be encouraged.
Only after a set period of time (ten minutes, for example) or
when the group has pretty well exhausted its ideas, is an
analytical or critical discussion of the ideas permitted.

"Posting" is a variation on "brainstorming" in which two or
more columns are labeled on the board.  These might be "pros"
and "cons" of an issue or "possible causes," "consequences"
and "interactions" of a phenomenon or event.  Again, criticism of
ideas is postponed until a later period to encourage
spontaneity and creativity.



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which lend themselves to creative problem-
             solving
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end
#ends

#section
#card !SECTION THIRTEEN!ENCOURAGING CLASS DISCUSSION--SUSTAINING AND FOCUSING DISCUSSION!

!73!Number 73:  Encourage heated debates.!

!74!Number 74:  Intercede if the discussion breaks down.!

!75!Number 75:  Keep notes during discussion.!

!76!Number 76:  Assign students responsibility for summarizing! major
            points.
#end

#card !73!Encouraging Heated Debates!
                                         Suggestion Number:  73

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Discuss points of view other than your own

      *  Focus and sustain discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Encouraging heated debates.

Faculty members in several disciplines find it useful to make
leading remarks to stimulate or revitalize class discussion.
The goal of one engineering professor, for example, is "to get the
students into such a heated debate that I can slip away to the back
of the room unnoticed and the discussion continues.
I do this by judiciously playing the devil's advocate, saying
something provocative, and stressing the different points of
view among the students.  Once the discussion is underway, I
try to restrain myself from commenting after a student has
spoken.  In this way the students come to rely more on
themselves to `lead' the discussion."

A political science professor uses the same strategy.  "I
begin by trying to get students to disagree with one another
in order to generate ideas.  With this method there is some
sacrifice of the organization and clarity provided by
lectures, but there is no better substitute for engaging
students' minds and getting them to wrestle with the
implications of various public policy techniques."

Both instructors stress that the lively exchanges can be
generated by asking such questions as, "Who doesn't agree with
what's being said?  Will someone try to put into words an
opposite point of view or a counter position?"



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  Subjects which involve different points of view.
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  None
#end

#card !74!Interceding Only When Discussion Breaks Down!
                                         Suggestion Number:  74

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Sustain discussion

      *  Refocus a discussion which is waning or wandering


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Interceding if the discussion is breaking down.

Researchers of small groups have identified several indicators
which reveal that a discussion is not going well.  These
include:

       -  excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking in the group

       -  repetition of the same points over and over

       -  private conversations in subgroups

       -  monopolization of the discussion by two or more
          members

       -  members taking sides and refusing to compromise

       -  apathetic participation

In general, a faculty member can usually refocus and
revitalize a discussion with the introduction of new
questions.  If these signs of a deteriorating discussion seem
endemic to a group, however, it may be useful to shift from
working on the task to discussing the interaction itself and
the feelings of the members about the functioning of the
group.  "I believe that the process of discussion is as
important as its substance," notes a professor of
architecture.  "If a group is having difficulties maintaining
a worthwhile discussion, I confront the issue directly and get them
to talk about what is happening and why."


Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Discussion
#end

#card !75!Keeping Notes During Discussion!
                                         Suggestion Number:  75

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Summarize major points

      *  Focus and sustain the discussion


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Keeping notes during discussion.

Some teachers find it useful to keep a clipboard handy during
discussion so that they can jot down notes.  As the class is
discussing a topic, one education professor makes notes about
important points, confusing concepts, or ideas that may have
been overlooked in the discussion.  At the end of the period,
he makes a brief summary of the topics discussed, reinforcing
the main points, and clarifying or elaborating as appropriate.

A professor of engineering employs a similar strategy, but he
interjects his comments during the course of discussion.  "I
summarize and make remarks that will get the discussion back
on track, or I shift the discussion from an issue that has
already been adequately dealt with to a new one."



Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode: Discussion
#end

#card !76!Having Students Summarize Major Points!
                                         Suggestion Number:  76

IF YOU WANT TO:

      *  Encourage class discussion

      *  Summarize major points

      *  Teach students to become active listeners


YOU MAY WISH TO CONSIDER:

Assigning students responsibility for summarizing the major
points.

"At the beginning of the discussion," says a professor of
architecture, "one or two students are selected to be the
summarizers.  Their charge is to take notes, raise questions,
and clarify points, so that they can provide a brief five
minute summary of the major issues, concerns and conclusions
generated during the discussion."

A variation on this technique is for the professor to tell the
class, at the beginning of the discussion, that someone will
be called on to summarize, but not identify who that student
will be.  This strategy is designed not only to encourage
students to participate more actively in the discussion but to
listen more carefully for the main ideas, since they may be
called upon to give the summary.


Limitations on Use of Suggestion

  Discipline:  None
Course Level:  None
 Course Size:  None
        Mode:  Discussion
#end
#ENDS

#card !help!GETTING AROUND!
Getting around in the Teaching Tips HyperDeck is easy\!

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#card !about_card!ABOUT THE DECK!
#show captions off
#cl A Teaching Tips HyperDeck
#cl Copyright (c) 1991 University of California, Irvine
#end
#ends